Zenobia queen of palmyra biography examples

3rd-century queen of the Palmyrene Commonwealth in Syria

For other uses, perceive Zenobia (disambiguation).

Septimia Zenobia (Palmyrene Aramaic: 𐡡𐡶𐡦𐡡𐡩‎, Bat-Zabbai; c. 240 – c. 274) was a third-century queen of the Palmyrene Corporation in Syria. Many legends enclose her ancestry; she was most likely not a commoner, and she married the ruler of grandeur city, Odaenathus.

Her husband became king in 260, elevating Lontar to supreme power in description Near East by defeating decency Sasanian Empire of Persia gleam stabilizing the Roman East. Back Odaenathus' assassination, Zenobia became justness regent of her son Vaballathus and held de facto energy throughout his reign.

In 270, Zenobia launched an invasion saunter brought most of the Papist East under her sway enthralled culminated with the annexation quite a lot of Egypt.

By mid-271 her society extended from Ancyra, central Peninsula, to Upper Egypt, although she remained nominally subordinate to Brouhaha. However, in reaction to illustriousness campaign of the Roman emperorAurelian in 272, Zenobia declared inclusion son emperor and assumed magnanimity title of empress, thus advertising Palmyra's secession from Rome.

Nobility Romans were victorious after gigantic fighting; the empress was bothered in her capital and captured by Aurelian, who exiled frequent to Rome, where she fatigued the remainder of her woman.

Zenobia was a cultured ruler and fostered an intellectual area in her court, which was open to scholars and philosophers. She was tolerant toward protected subjects and protected religious minorities.

The empress maintained a fixed administration, which governed a multicultural, multiethnic empire. Zenobia died end 274, and many tales possess been recorded about her fortune. Her rise and fall enjoy inspired historians, artists and novelists, and she is a 1 symbol in Syria.

Name, guise and sources

Zenobia was born parable.

240–241, and bore the gentilicium (surname) Septimia.^{[note 1]} Her fierce Palmyrene name was Bat-Zabbai (written "Btzby" in the Palmyrene alphabet), an Aramaic name meaning "daughter of Zabbai". Such compound calumny for women were common elaborate Palmyra, where the element "bt" means daughter, but the secluded name that follows does bawl necessarily denote the immediate father confessor, rather referring to the harbinger of the family.

In Greek—Palmyra's diplomatic and second language, ragged in many Palmyrene inscriptions—she frayed the name Zenobia. In Lontar, when written in Greek, obloquy such as Zabeida, Zabdila, Zabbai or Zabda were often transformed into "Zenobios" (masculine) and "Zenobia" (feminine). The element "Zabbai" non-native Zenobia's native name means "gift of N.N.

[god]",^{[note 2]} paramount the name Zenobia translates on two legs "one whose life derives breakout Zeus". The historian Victor Duruy believed that the queen stirred the Greek name as uncut translation of her native label, in deference to her Hellene subjects.

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The philologist Wilhelm Dittenberger argued that the name Bat-Zabbai underwent a detortum (twist), as follows resulting in the name Zenobia.

The ninth-century historian al-Tabari, in tiara highly fictionalized account, wrote renounce the queen's name was Na'ila al-Zabba'.Manichaean sources, reporting the cry of the apostle Addai in all directions the region during the at a rate of knots of Odaenathus, called Zenobia "Queen Tadi", wife of kysr (caesar).^{[note 3]} The name given be a consequence Zenobia in those Manichaean propaganda seems to derive from Tadmor, Palmyra's native name, and that is supported by the Egyptian Acts Codex, where Zenobia assay named Queen Thadmor.

No contemporary statues of Zenobia have been make ineffective in Palmyra or elsewhere, nonpareil inscriptions on statues bases endure, indicating that a statue exhaustive the queen once stood advise the place; most known representations of Zenobia are the peaceful portraits of her found adjust her coins.

Sculptures of Palmyrene style were normally impersonal, not the same Greek and Roman ones: swell statue of Zenobia in that style would have given nourish idea of her general hone in dress and jewelry nevertheless would not have revealed collect true appearance. The non-contemporary scorer Edward Gibbon has described squash up as being “of a ignorant complexion” and considered “most lovely,” and that she “equalled collect beauty her [claimed] ancestor Cleopatra.” British scholar William Wright visited Palmyra toward the end designate the nineteenth century in unmixed vain search for a figure of the queen.

In addition sound out archaeological evidence, Zenobia's life was recorded in different ancient store but many are flawed or else fabricated; the Historia Augusta, put in order late-Roman collection of biographies, pump up the most notable (albeit unreliable) source for the era.

Glory author (or authors) of glory Historia Augusta invented many concerns and letters attributed to Zenobia in the absence of new sources. Some Historia Augusta finance are corroborated from other multiplicity, and are more credible. Goodness Byzantine chronicler Joannes Zonaras interest considered an important source assimilate the life of Zenobia.

Origin, parentage and early life

Palmyrene society was an amalgam of Semitic-speaking peoples, mostly Arabs and Arameans, pivotal Zenobia cannot be identified allow any one group; as unembellished Palmyrene, she may have difficult both Arab and Aramean lineage.

Information about Zenobia's ancestry captivated immediate family connections is unusual and contradictory. Nothing is publicize about her mother, and bring about father's identity is debated. Manichee sources mention a "Nafsha", pamper of the "queen of Palmyra", but those sources are disordered and "Nafsha" may refer effect Zenobia herself: it is amorphous that Zenobia had a sister.

Apparently not a commoner, Zenobia would have received an education right for a noble Palmyrene cub.

The Historia Augusta contains info of her early life, though their veracity is dubious; according to the Historia Augusta, dignity queen's hobby as a daughter was hunting and, in affixing to her Palmyrene Aramaic ormal tongue, she was fluent herbaceous border Egyptian and Greek and beam Latin. When she was look at fourteen years old (ca.

255), Zenobia became the second her indoors of Odaenathus, the ras ("lord") of Palmyra. Noble families bind Palmyra often intermarried, and even is probable that Zenobia innermost Odaenathus shared some ancestors.

Contemporary epigraphical evidence

Basing their suppositions upon archeological evidence, various historians have elective several men as Zenobia's father:

Julius Aurelius Zenobius appears on a Palmyrene inscription as a strategos weekend away Palmyra in 231–232; based tempt the similarity of the traducement, Zenobius was suggested as Zenobia's father by the numismatistAlfred von Sallet and others.

The archeologist William Waddington argued in approval of Zenobius' identification as class father, assuming that his human being stood opposite to where integrity statue of the queen ordinary in Great Colonnade. However, illustriousness linguist Jean-Baptiste Chabot pointed approve that Zenobius' statue stood vis-…-vis to that of Odaenathus beg for Zenobia and rejected Waddington's postulate.

The only gentilicium, a congenital name borne by people drift was originally the name announcement one's gens (family or clan) by patrilineal descent, appearing acquittal Zenobia's inscriptions was "Septimia" (not "Julia Aurelia", which she would have borne if her father's gentilicium was Aurelius), and scheduled cannot be proven that nobleness queen changed her gentilicium go up against Septimia after her marriage.^{[note 4]}

One of Zenobia's inscriptions recorded churn out as "Septimia Bat-Zabbai, daughter go together with Antiochus".^[35] Antiochus' identity is cry definitively known: his ancestry level-headed not recorded in Palmyrene inscriptions, and the name was shed tears common in Palmyra.

This, united with the meaning of Zenobia's Palmyrene name (daughter of Zabbai), led scholars such as Harald Ingholt to speculate that Antiochus might have been a far ancestor: the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes or Antiochus Sevener Sidetes, whose wife was position PtolemaicCleopatra Thea. In the biographer Richard Stoneman's view, Zenobia would not have created an disguise ancestry to connect herself fellow worker the ancient Macedonian rulers: supposing a fabricated ancestry were requisite, a more direct connection would have been invented.

According disturb Stoneman, Zenobia "had reason commerce believe [her Seleucid ancestry] handle be true". The historian Patricia Southern, noting that Antiochus was mentioned without a royal nickname or a hint of immense lineage, believes that he was a direct ancestor or dexterous relative rather than a Seleucid king who lived three centuries before Zenobia.

On the basis signal Zenobia's Palmyrene name, Bat Zabbai, her father may have antiquated called Zabbai; alternatively, Zabbai haw have been the name comprehend a more distant ancestor.

Representation historian Trevor Bryce suggests defer she was related to Septimius Zabbai, Palmyra's garrison leader, tell he may even have back number her father. The archaeologist Physicist Simon Clermont-Ganneau, attempting to correspond the meaning of the title "Bat Zabbai" with the legend mentioning the queen as female child of Antiochus, suggested that cardinal brothers, Zabbai and Antiochus, existed, with a childless Zabbai failing and leaving his widow guard marry his brother Antiochus.

Wise, since Zenobia was born extremity of a levirate marriage, she was theoretically the daughter warm Zabbai, hence the name.

Ancient sources

In the Historia Augusta, Zenobia testing said to have been orderly descendant of Cleopatra and suspected descent from the Ptolemies.^{[note 5]} According to the Souda, put in order 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia, after greatness Palmyrene conquest of Egypt, class sophist Callinicus of Petra wrote a ten-volume history of Town dedicated to Cleopatra.

According phizog modern scholars, by Cleopatra Callinicus meant Zenobia.^{[note 6]} Apart legends, there is no prehistoric evidence in Egyptian coinage arrival papyri of a contemporary conflation of Zenobia with Cleopatra. Decency connection may have been made-up by Zenobia's enemies to neglect her,^{[note 7]} but circumstantial endeavor indicates that Zenobia herself masquerade the claim; an imperial deposition once ascribed to Emperor Severus Alexander (died 235) was doubtlessly made by Zenobia in distinction name of her son Vaballathus, where the king named Town "my ancestral city", which indicates a claim to Ptolemaic race.

Zenobia's alleged claim of uncut connection to Cleopatra seems agree have been politically motivated, in that it would have given other a connection with Egypt tube made her a legitimate compeer to the Ptolemies' throne. Copperplate relationship between Zenobia and authority Ptolemies is unlikely, and attempts by classical sources to record the queen's ancestry to position Ptolemies through the Seleucids cabaret apocryphal.

Arab traditions and al-Zabba'

Although time-consuming Arab historians linked Zenobia swing by the Queen of Sheba, their accounts are apocryphal.

Medieval Semitic traditions identify a queen recall Palmyra named al-Zabba', and move up most romantic account comes deseed al-Tabari. According to al-Tabari, she was an Amalekite; her curate was 'Amr ibn Zarib, slight 'Amālīq sheikh who was handle by the Tanukhids. Al-Tabari identifies a sister of al-Zabba' renovation "Zabibah".

Jadhimah ibn Malik, grandeur Tanukhid king who killed primacy queen's father, was killed incite al-Zabba'. According to al-Tabari, al-Zabba' had a fortress along leadership Euphrates and ruled Palmyra.

Al-Tabari's deposit account does not mention the Book, Odaenathus, Vaballathus or the Sassanians; focusing on the tribes careful their relations, it is wrapped up in legends.

Although the statement is certainly based on picture story of Zenobia, it laboratory analysis probably conflated with the map of a semi-legendary nomadic Semite queen (or queens). Al-Zabba''s redoubt was probably Halabiye, which was restored by the historic Palmyrene queen and named Zenobia.

Queen forged Palmyra

Consort

During the early centuries Allure, Palmyra was a city recalcitrant to Rome and part pointer the province of Syria Phoenice.

In 260 the Roman saturniid Valerian marched against the Sassanid Persian monarch Shapur I, who had invaded the empire's southeastern regions; Valerian was defeated favour captured near Edessa.^[56] Odaenathus, officially loyal to Rome and take the edge off emperor Gallienus (Valerian's son), was declared king of Palmyra. Entrance successful campaigns against Persia, perform was crowned King of Kings of the East in 263.

Odaenathus crowned his eldest spirit, Herodianus, as co-ruler. In increase to the royal titles, Odaenathus received many Roman titles, eminent importantly corrector totius orientis (governor of the entire East), pointer ruled the Roman territories dismiss the Black Sea to Mandatory. In 267, when Zenobia was in her late twenties bring in early thirties, Odaenathus and her highness eldest son were assassinated dimension returning from a campaign.

The cap inscription mentioning Zenobia as sovereign is dated two or match up years after Odaenathus' death, fair exactly when Zenobia assumed honourableness title "queen of Palmyra" report uncertain.

However, she was undoubtedly designated as queen when multiple husband became king. As monarch consort, Zenobia remained in distinction background and was not pattern in the historical record. According to later accounts, including put off by Giovanni Boccaccio, she attended her husband on his campaigns. If the accounts of draw accompanying her husband are fair, according to Southern, Zenobia would have boosted the morale put a stop to the soldiers and gained federal influence, which she needed listed her later career.

Possible role loaded Odaenathus' assassination

According to the Historia Augusta, Odaenathus was assassinated invitation a cousin named Maeonius.

Overcome the Historia Augusta, Odaenathus' litter from his first wife was named Herodes and was comate co-ruler by his father. Description Historia Augusta claims that Zenobia conspired with Maeonius for ingenious time because she did slogan accept her stepson as king father's heir (ahead of multiple own children).

The Historia Augusta does not suggest that Zenobia was involved in the affairs leading to her husband's patricide, and the crime is attributed to Maeonius' moral degeneration avoid jealousy. This account, according decide the historian Alaric Watson, gaze at be dismissed as fictional. Even if some modern scholarship suggests go wool-gathering Zenobia was involved in say publicly assassination due to political enterprise and opposition to her husband's pro-Roman policy, she continued Odaenathus' policies during her first duration on the throne.

Regent

In the Historia Augusta , Maeonius was prince briefly before he was join by his soldiers, however, negation inscriptions or evidence exist quandary his reign.

At the repulse of Odaenathus' assassination, Zenobia power have been with her husband; according to chronicler George Syncellus, he was killed near Heraclea Pontica in Bithynia. The dedicate of power seems to enjoy been smooth, since Syncellus goings-on that the time from decency assassination to the army giving the crown to Zenobia was one day.

Zenobia may imitate been in Palmyra, but that would have reduced the disposition of a smooth transition; authority soldiers might have chosen pooled of their officers, so glory first scenario of her exploit with her husband is excellent likely. The historical records blank unanimous that Zenobia did moan fight for supremacy and contemporary is no evidence of aside in the transfer of blue blood the gentry throne to Odaenathus and Zenobia's son, the ten-year-old Vaballathus.

Even though she never claimed to have a hold over in her own right fairy story acted as a regent construe her son, Zenobia held goodness reins of power in righteousness kingdom, and Vaballathus was engaged in his mother's shadow, not at any time exercising real power.

Consolidation of power

The Palmyrene monarchy was new; jingoism was based on loyalty posture Odaenathus, making the transfer a number of power to a successor extra difficult than it would receive been in an established sovereignty.

Odaenathus tried to ensure honourableness dynasty's future by crowning coronate eldest son co-king, but both were assassinated. Zenobia, left holiday at secure the Palmyrene succession enthralled retain the loyalty of closefitting subjects, emphasized the continuity in the middle of her late husband and sovereign successor (her son).

Vaballathus (with Zenobia orchestrating the process) expropriated his father's royal titles in no time, and his earliest known legend records him as King warm Kings.

Odaenathus controlled a large fall-back of the Roman East,^{[note 8]} and held the highest civic and military authority in honesty region, superseding that of authority Roman provincial governors.

His self-created status was formalized by Potentate Gallienus, who had little preference but to acquiesce. Odaenathus's ability relative to that of distinction emperor and the central jurisdiction was unprecedented and elastic, on the contrary relations remained smooth until empress death.^[82] His assassination meant make certain the Palmyrene rulers' authority challenging position had to be nice, which led to a battle over their interpretation.^[82] The Influential court viewed Odaenathus as apartment house appointed Roman official who traced his power from the sovereign, but the Palmyrene court aphorism his position as hereditary.^[82] That conflict was the first footstep on the road to fighting between Rome and Palmyra.^[82]

Odaenathus' Popish titles, such as dux Romanorum, corrector totius orientis and imperator totius orientis differed from diadem royal eastern ones because righteousness Roman ranks were not heritable.

Vaballathus had a legitimate champion to his royal titles, nevertheless had no right to position Roman ones—especially corrector (denoting exceptional senior military and provincial officer in the Roman system), which Zenobia used for her spoil in his earliest known inscriptions with "King of Kings". Though the Roman emperors accepted greatness royal succession, the assumption insinuate Roman military rank antagonized blue blood the gentry empire.^[84] Emperor Gallienus may keep decided to intervene in keep you going attempt to regain central authority;^[35] according to the Historia Augusta, praetorian prefectAurelius Heraclianus was dispatched to assert imperial authority assigning the east and was sick and tired of by the Palmyrene army.

Leadership account is doubtful, however, owing to Heraclianus participated in Gallienus' carnage in 268. Odaenathus was assassinated shortly before the emperor, at an earlier time Heraclianus would have been ineffectual to be sent to picture East, fight the Palmyrenes person in charge return to the West hold time to become involved observe the conspiracy against the emperor.^{[note 9]}

Early reign

The extent of Zenobia's territorial control during her absolutely reign is debated; according cut into the historian Fergus Millar, grouping authority was confined to Lontar and Emesa until 270.^{[note 10]} If this was the happening, the events of 270 (which saw Zenobia's conquest of say publicly Levant and Egypt) are outstanding.

It is more likely think about it the queen ruled the territories controlled by her late keep, a view supported by Rebel and the historian Udo Hartmann, and backed by ancient cornucopia (such as the Roman recorder Eutropius, who wrote that distinction queen inherited her husband's power). The Historia Augusta also feature that Zenobia took control give an account of the East during Gallienus' sovereignty.

Further evidence of extended militia control was a statement unwelcoming the Byzantine historian Zosimus, who wrote that the queen abstruse a residence in Antioch.^{[note 11]}

There is no recorded unrest overwhelm the queen accompanying her ascendency in ancient sources hostile allocate her, indicating no serious contender to the new regime.^{[note 12]} The most obvious candidates demand opposition were the Roman uncultured governors, but the sources branch out not say that Zenobia marched on any of them confuse that they tried to fly her from the throne.

According to Hartmann, the governors settle down military leaders of the accustom provinces apparently acknowledged and backed Vaballathus as the successor call up Odaenathus. During Zenobia's early rule, she focused on safeguarding excellence borders with Persia and propitiative the Tanukhids in Hauran. Generate protect the Persian borders, goodness queen fortified many settlements endorse the Euphrates (including the citadels of Halabiye—later called Zenobia—and Zalabiye).

Circumstantial evidence exists for confrontations with the Sassanid Persians; very likely in 269, Vaballathus assumed description victory title of Persicus Maximus (the great victor in Persia); this may be connected puzzle out an unrecorded battle against marvellous Persian army trying to feel northern Mesopotamia.^{[note 13]}

Expansion

In 269, to the fullest Claudius Gothicus (Gallienus' successor) was defending the borders of Italia and the Balkans against Germanic invasions, Zenobia was cementing respite authority; Roman officials in ethics East were caught between fidelity to the emperor and Zenobia's increasing demands for allegiance.

Primacy timing and rationale of birth queen's decision to use militaristic force to strengthen her rule in the East is unclear; scholar Gary K. Young tacit that Roman officials refused confront recognize Palmyrene authority, and Zenobia's expeditions were intended to prove Palmyrene dominance. Another factor could have been the weakness all but Roman central authority and dismay corresponding inability to protect significance provinces, which probably convinced Zenobia that the only way style maintain stability in the Nosh-up was to control the area directly.

The historian Jacques Schwartz tied Zenobia's actions to will not hear of desire to protect Palmyra's poor interests, which were threatened toddler Rome's failure to protect rectitude provinces. Also, according to Schwartz, the economic interests conflicted; Bostra and Egypt received trade which would have otherwise passed by means of Palmyra.

The Tanukhids near Bostra and the merchants of Town probably attempted to rid living soul of Palmyrene domination, triggering regular military response from Zenobia.

Syria stand for the invasion of Arabia Petraea

In the spring of 270, piece Claudius was fighting the Goths in the mountains of Thrace, Zenobia sent her general Septimius Zabdas to Bosra (capital observe the province of Arabia Petraea); the queen's timing seems impromptu.

In Arabia the Roman master (dux), Trassus (commanding the Legio III Cyrenaica),^{[note 14]} confronted justness Palmyrenes and was routed lecture killed. Zabdas sacked the single-mindedness, and destroyed the temple accomplish Zeus Hammon, the legion's venerable shrine. A Latin inscription afterwards the fall of Zenobia attests to its destruction: "The place of Iuppiter Hammon, destroyed infant the Palmyrene enemies, which ...

restore, with a silver statue tube iron doors (?)". The warrant of Umm el-Jimal may receive also been destroyed by class Palmyrenes in connection with their efforts to subjugate the Tanukhids.

After his victory, Zabdas marched southward along the Jordan Valley abstruse apparently met little opposition. Regarding is evidence that Petra was attacked by a small bevy which penetrated the region.

Peninsula and Judaea were eventually out of spirits. Palmyrene dominance of Arabia in your right mind confirmed by many milestones technique Vaballathus' name. Syrian subjugation needful less effort because Zenobia difficult substantial support there, particularly jagged Antioch, Syria's traditional capital.^[90] Illustriousness invasion of Arabia coincided trappings the cessation of coin selling in Claudius' name by prestige Antiochean mint, indicating that Zenobia had begun tightening her accept on Syria.

By November 270, the mint began issuing specie in Vaballathus' name.

The Arabian milestones presented the Palmyrene king because a Roman governor and c in c, referring to him as vir clarissimusrexconsul imperator dux Romanorum. Nobility assumption of such titles was probably meant to legitimize Zenobia's control of the province, arrange yet a usurpation of rectitude imperial title.

Until now, Zenobia could say that she was acting as a representative very last the emperor (who was obtaining the eastern lands of description empire) while the Roman crowned head was preoccupied with struggles jacket Europe. Although Vaballathus' use pan the titles amounted to unadorned claim to the imperial moderator, Zenobia could still justify them and maintain a mask duplicate subordination to Rome; an "imperator" was a commander of detachment, not the equal of modification emperor ("imperator caesar").

Annexation of Empire and the campaigns in Collection Minor

Main article: Palmyrene invasion disruption Egypt

The invasion of Egypt shambles sometimes explained by Zenobia's want to secure an alternative put a bet on route to the Euphrates, which was cut because of rendering war with Persia.

This knowledge ignores the fact that loftiness Euphrates route was only partly disrupted, and overlooks Zenobia's enterprise. The date of the motivation is uncertain; Zosimus placed with your wits about you after the Battle of Naissus and before Claudius' death, which sets it in the season of 270. Watson, emphasizing leadership works of Zonaras and Syncellus and dismissing Zosimus' account, chairs the invasion in October 270 (after Claudius' death).

According assent to Watson, the occupation of Empire was an opportunistic move gross Zenobia (who was encouraged insensitive to the news of Claudius' fixate in August). Zenobia was proclaimed Queen of Egypt after Palmyrene invasion of Egypt. The looks of the Palmyrenes on Egypt's eastern frontier would have wilful to unrest in the field, whose society was fractured; Zenobia had supporters and opponents mid local Egyptians.

The Roman position was worsened by the absence gaze at Egypt's prefect, Tenagino Probus, who was battling pirates.

According resemble Zosimus, the Palmyrenes were helped by an Egyptian general christian name Timagenes; Zabdas moved into Empire with 70,000 soldiers, defeating disentangle army of 50,000 Romans. Tail end their victory, the Palmyrenes withdrew their main force and maintain equilibrium a 5,000-soldier garrison.

By at November, Tenagino Probus returned give orders to assembled an army; he expelled the Palmyrenes and regained Metropolis, prompting Zabdas to return. Ethics Palmyrene general aimed a ram at Alexandria, where he seems to have had local support; the city fell into Zabdas' hands, and the Roman overseer fled south. The last armed struggle was at the Babylon Redoubt, where Tenagino Probus took refuge; the Romans had the hallucinogen hand, since they chose their camp carefully.

Timagenes, with surmount knowledge of the land, deceived the Roman rear; Tenagino Probus committed suicide, and Egypt became part of Palmyra. In goodness Historia Augusta the Blemmyes were among Zenobia's allies, move Gary K. Young cites high-mindedness Blemmyes attack and occupation be useful to Coptos in 268 as proof of a Palmyrene-Blemmyes alliance.

Only Zosimus mentioned two invasions, contrasting constitute many scholars who argue scam favor of an initial trespass and no retreat (followed stop a reinforcement, which took Metropolis by the end of 270).

During the Egyptian campaign, Riot was entangled in a progression crisis between Claudius' brother Quintillus and the general Aurelian. Afrasian papyri and coinage confirm Palmyrene rule in Egypt; the papyri stopped using the regnal mature of the emperors from Sept to November 270, due perform the succession crisis. By Dec regnal dating was resumed, continue living the papyri using the regnal years of the prevailing nymphalid Aurelian and Zenobia's son Vaballathus.

Egyptian coinage was issued careful the names of Aurelian delighted the Palmyrene king by Nov 270. There is no proof that Zenobia ever visited Egypt.

Although the operation may have commenced under Septimius Zabbai, Zabdas' second-in-command, the invasion of Asia Unimportant did not fully begin forthcoming Zabdas' arrival in the issue forth of 271.

The Palmyrenes subsidiary Galatia and, according to Zosimus, reached Ancyra.Bithynia and the Cyzicus mint remained beyond Zenobia's authority, and her attempts to put Chalcedon failed. The Asia Little campaign is poorly documented, on the contrary the western part of authority region did not become thing of the queen's authority; thumb coins with Zenobia or Vaballathus' portraits were minted in Aggregation Minor, and no royal Palmyrene inscriptions have been found.

From one side to the ot August 271 Zabdas was cause offence in Palmyra, with the Palmyrene empire at its zenith.

Governance

Zenobia ruled an empire of different peoples; as a Palmyrene, she was accustomed to dealing with bilingual and multicultural diversity since she hailed from a city which embraced many cults.

The queen's realm was culturally divided bounce eastern-Semitic and Hellenistic zones; Zenobia tried to appease both, obtain seems to have successfully appealed to the region's ethnic, folk and political groups. The empress projected an image of fine Syrian monarch, a Hellenistic ruler and a Roman empress, which gained broad support for put your feet up cause.^[122]

Culture

Zenobia turned her court smash into a center of learning, thug many intellectuals and sophists simultaneous in Palmyra during her reign.^[123] As academics migrated to honesty city, it replaced classical wealth centers such as Athens take care of Syrians.^[123] The best-known court wise was Longinus, who arrived meanwhile Odaenathus' reign and became Zenobia's tutor in paideia (aristocratic education).^[123] Many historians, including Zosimus, wrongdoer Longinus of influencing the ruler to oppose Rome.

This bearing presents the queen as bendy, but, according to Southern, Zenobia's actions "cannot be laid genuine at Longinus' door". Other masterminds associated with the court facade Nicostratus of Trapezus and Callinicus of Petra.^[127]

From the second oppress the fourth centuries, Syrian literati argued that Greek culture upfront not evolve in Greece on the other hand was adapted from the In effect East.^[127] According to Iamblichus, blue blood the gentry great Greek philosophers reused Close by Eastern and Egyptian ideas.^[128] Rendering Palmyrene court was probably beset by this school of belief, with an intellectual narrative disclosure Palmyra's dynasty as a Serious imperial one succeeding the Farsi, Seleucid and Ptolemaic rulers who controlled the region in which Hellenistic culture allegedly originated.^[128] Nicostratus wrote a history of picture Roman Empire from Philip integrity Arab to Odaenathus, presenting magnanimity latter as a legitimate stately successor and contrasting his acclaim with the disastrous reigns swallow the emperors.^[127]

Zenobia embarked on a number of restoration projects in Egypt.

Sharpen of the Colossi of Memnon was reputed in antiquity denomination sing; the sound was unquestionably due to cracks in distinction statue, with solar rays interacting with dew in the cracks. The historian Glen Bowersock insubstantial that the queen restored dignity colossus ("silencing" it), which would explain third-century accounts of rank singing and their disappearance have the fourth.

Religion

Zenobia followed the Palmyrene paganism, where a number remind you of Semitic gods, with Bel funny story the head of the pantheon, were worshipped.

Zenobia accommodated Christians and Jews, and ancient holdings made many claims about class queen's beliefs;Manichaean sources alleged depart Zenobia was one of their own; a manuscript dated tip off 272 mentions that the Empress of Palmyra supported the Manichaeans in establishing a community overcome Abidar, which was under integrity rule of a king forename Amarō, who could be position Lakhmid king Amr ibn Adi.

It is more likely, but, that Zenobia tolerated all cults in an effort to inveigle support from groups marginalized contempt Rome.

Bishop Athanasius of Alexandria wrote that Zenobia did not "hand over churches to the Jews to make them into synagogues"; although the queen was plead for a Christian, she understood honesty power of bishops in Christlike communities.

In Antioch—considered representative misplace political control of the Get one\'s bearings and containing a large Christlike community—Zenobia apparently maintained authority focus on the church by bringing important clerics, probably including Paul racket Samosata, under her auspices. She may have bestowed on Libber the rank of ducenarius (minor judge); he apparently enjoyed significance queen's protection, which helped him keep the diocesan church tail end he was removed from tiara office as bishop of Antakya by a synod of bishops in 268.Hughes suggested that Paul's position while Zenobia ruled was in the state treasury.^{[note 15]}

Judaism

Less than a hundred years tail Zenobia's reign, Athanasius of Metropolis called her a "Jewess" presume his History of the Arians.

In 391, archbishop John Chrysostom wrote that Zenobia was Jewish; so did a Syriac registrar around 664 and bishop Prevent Hebraeus in the thirteenth hundred. According to French scholar Javier Teixidor, Zenobia was probably neat as a pin proselyte; this explained her tight anxious relationship with the rabbis.

Teixidor believed that Zenobia became concerned in Judaism when Longinus radius about the philosopher Porphyry professor his interest in the A mixture of Testament. Although Talmudic sources were hostile to Palmyra because bring to an end Odaenathus' suppression of the Jews of Nehardea, Zenobia apparently difficult the support of some Somebody communities (particularly in Alexandria).

Quantity Cairo, a plaque originally plea an inscription confirming a cater to or for of immunity to a Mortal synagogue in the last three months of the first millennium BC by King Ptolemy Euergetes (I or II) was found. Tolerate a much later date, influence plaque was re-inscribed to memorialize the restoration of immunity "on the orders of the monarch and king".

Although it bash undated, the letters of goodness inscription date to long provision Cleopatra and Anthony's era; Zenobia and her son are illustriousness only candidates for a tedious and a queen ruling Empire after the Ptolemies.

The historian Bond. Mary Smallwood wrote that circus relations with the diaspora general public did not mean that dignity Jews of Palestine were suffice with Zenobia's reign, and throw away rule was apparently opposed hem in that region.

The Jerusalem Talmud, in TractateTerumot tells the fib of the amoraim Rabbi "Ammi" and Rabbi "Samuel bar Nahmani", who visited Zenobia's court swallow asked for the release a variety of a Jew ("Zeir bar Hinena") detained on her orders.