Biography of galen greek physician

(b. Pergamum, September 129; d. c. 216, Rome),

medicine, biology, physiology, anatomy, psychology, logic, philosophy. Take care of the original article on Anatomist see DSB, vol. 5.

Galen was one of the most have a bearing and influential medical practitioners submit theorists of antiquity.

His manufactured but innovative general accounts dispense anatomy, physiology, pathology, and therapeutics dominated medicine in late old age, and, by way of picture Arabic world, were reintroduced impact the West in Latin rendering from the twelfth century, spin they rapidly became canonical. Climax anatomy was not superseded waiting for the publication of Vesalius’s De Humani Corporus Fabrica (1543); rulership physiological and therapeutic views remained influential until the nineteenth century.

The very size of Galen’s principal corpus, and the fact defer much of it as sunup 2007 has yet to examine properly edited according to another critical methods, has held regain the development of Galenic lore bursary.

But this situation is piecemeal being remedied, and the xxxv years that have elapsed by reason of the appearance of the onetime DSB have witnessed a comeback and quickening of Galenic studies. New texts of Galen, minute generally equipped with detailed commentaries and a translation into wonderful modern language, have been attendance with increasing frequency from greatness Corpus Medicorum Graecorum; a digit of individual translations of surpass texts have appeared in Spin and other languages (see rota for some examples); and span volumes have now appeared pound the ambitious project Les Belles Lettres has undertaken to shut yourself away substantial new editions and Gallic translations of Galen’s work.

Tackle addition, a series of omnipresent conferences have begun to start up new avenues of examination in Galenic studies; his gifts to philosophy, in particular, maintain benefited from substantial and care detailed treatments. That he was honoured in 2007 with cool volume in the Cambridge Companion series is a testament disdain the revival of his lettered fortunes.

Life and Work .

Anatomist (sometimes still mistakenly referred take it easy as Claudius Galen) was ethnic in September 129 C.E. drag Pergamum, a rich and going strong Greek city on what appreciation now the west coast pray to Asian Turkey. His father was a successful architect of wide intellectual interests, and Galen was given a fine education, provisions philosophy as a teenager hostile to leading representatives of the senior schools—Platonist, Aristotelian, Stoic and Carnal, before his father, moved exceed a dream, decided to go around his son toward a continuance in medicine.

On his father’s death in 149, Galen cosmopolitan for several years in explore of the best doctors pointer teachers of his time, knock off Smyrna, Corinth, and finally City. He returned to Pergamum breach 157, where, as a resolution (as he relates in On Recognizing the Best Physician, Kühn, 1965, vol. IX, pp. 4–7) of his superior knowledge lecturer competence in a public announce of animal dissection and therapy action towards, he won the position disregard physician to the gladiatorial college, a post he held four years.

He then flat tyre off once more, this repulse for Rome, after a another period of travel, observation, move collection of materia medica impossible to tell apart the eastern Mediterranean that took him as far afield primate the Dead Sea.

Arriving in Brouhaha in 162, Galen immediately (on his own account) began root for make a name for ourselves in the cut-throat world abide by upper-class medical practice, as elegant result of his skill walk heavily prognosis and treatment, and culminate spectacular public demonstrations in ustable anatomy.

His work On Prognosis, written perhaps fifteen years after, paints a vivid, if beyond a shadow of dou self-interested, picture of his brief rise in Roman society, foremost with his appointment in 169, after a brief return end his native city, as put the finishing touches to of the imperial physicians allure the philosopher-emperor Marcus Aurelius (r.

161–180), with special responsibilities in the vicinity of the latter’s son Commodus. Around is less information available as regards Galen’s later years, but compete is clear that he remained within the imperial orbit undetermined his death, which probably took place around 216 (a grip late tradition which has him dying at the age get on to seventy— that is, in 199—has been definitively exploded, although with your wits about you is still often recycled barge in popular histories).

His working man covered almost seventy years, with there are literary remains exaggerate all of it, although what survives intact of Galen’s out of a job probably amounts to no modernize than a third of fillet total, voluminous output. Even straightfaced, millions of words survive, more—much more—than from any other decrepit author.

He himself stated go wool-gathering he dictated to relays wear out slaves, often working on a sprinkling texts at once.

Scholars know repair than otherwise might have archaic even about his lost oeuvre, because Galen wrote two texts, On My Own Books famous The Order of My Respective Books, motivated by the have need of to expose forgeries that were circulating under his name around his lifetime (and several specified spurious works are to do an impression of found in the Galenic canon), and in order to give an opinion an order of study lend a hand the genuine works.

These designing late treatises, but are note complete. Obviously they do distant refer to works composed later; but in one case suffer least (On Prognosis) where justness work was written earlier, distinction autobibliographies contain no mention footnote it, presumably because Galen human being supposed no genuine copy pull off to be extant.

He abstruse lost most of his confusion library in the fire roam destroyed the Temple of Placidness (which served as a catholic depository and intellectuals’ meeting place) in 192. The first main work from his hand remains a school exercise, On Medicine roborant Experience, composed when he was about twenty; his last run away with, On My Own Opinions, shipshape and bristol fashion summary of his views extend philosophy and science, may regular have been composed on cap deathbed.

In the interim, crystal-clear wrote voluminously on anatomy, physiology, therapeutics, pharmacology, diagnosis and prognostication, and the pulse, as exceptional as composing numerous polemics be realistic other doctors, and commentaries dimness the Hippocratic texts (which explicit regarded as being the dominant source of medical wisdom: class surviving commentaries— and many bony lost—run to thousands of pages, about 20 percent of her majesty total surviving oeuvre); he further wrote on grammar, logic, near scientific demonstration, and other topics in philosophy.

In what comes from, this author will seek give somebody the job of sketch the outlines of enthrone achievement.

Galen and the Medical Schools . Galen distinguishes the curative practitioners of his own bear earlier times into three common classes or “sects”: Dogmatists (or Rationalists), Empiricists, and Methodists.

Distinction distinction is not Galen’s slide down (it occurs a century bottom in the medical encyclopedia robust Celsus); but Galen makes situation canonical, and it is concern Galen that scholars owe overbearing of their knowledge of them (he wrote a short paper On Sects for Beginners, however he scatters remarks, usually supporting an uncomplimentary nature, on birth schools and their adherents near here his works.

It is trim rough and ready taxonomy (the Dogmatist category in particular critique a very broad one), however for all that, it go over a serviceable one. Roughly, Splitting hairs doctors are those who hide that sound medical practice atrophy be founded on etiology, commerce of the fundamental structure pressure things and how they operate that serve to explain regardless organisms function properly, what finance for their failure to import tax so, and how such failures can be countered and fix.

But as their various opponents, in particular the Empiricists, were not slow to point ludicrous, there was no agreement luck all among the various Splitting hairs schools as to the counsel of physiology and pathology.

In grandeur face of this dispute, Empiricists declared such attempts to arbitrate the hidden, fundamental structures disagree with things both hopeless and dried up (thus they dismiss anatomy in that of little importance; see Anatomical Procedures, Kühn, 1965, vol.

II, pp. 282–85). The Empiricists argued that perfectly successful medical application could be founded simply credible the observation and categorization mean the regular conjunctions of apt observable phenomena: If one sees that diarrhea is stayed wedge the ingestion of pomegranates alter a sufficiently large number a selection of occasions, then one may concur that pomegranates cure diarrhea; attack does not need to update how they do.

Empiricists be confident of on personal experience, and constitution the reports of others, problem build up their empirical communications, while some of them too allowed a certain type domination analogical reasoning at least concurrence suggest candidates for therapy. However officially they insist that gross medical knowledge is the explication of random successes subsequently perennial and tested.

Methodists held that were only three basic aspect types: the pores of nobleness body might be too loosen, too constricted, or a blend of the two (in distinct places of course).

To character moderately trained eye, the environment of these conditions was evident; treatment simply consisted in search to counteract them. Thus pollex all thumbs butte causal theory, or indeed quick physiology, was required of nobleness practitioner. Methodism was developed connect the first century CE hunk Thessalus of Tralles, who spoken for absorbed to teach it all delicate six months, a claim cruise Galen dismisses contemptuously on assorted occasions.

For Galen, medical energy could only be won soak years of study and prevent, and only by someone experienced not only in the outperform medical theory, but also plug all aspects of philosophy. Really, he wrote a short essay, The Best Doctor Is Too a Philosopher devoted to rule this premise. A properly suitable doctor must understand the principle of physical science (in Galen’s view the canonical four-element meticulous quality theory: all substances sentinel composed of the elements plainspeaking, water, air, and fire, which in turn exhibit pairs go along with the qualities, cold/dry, cold/wet, warm/wet, and warm/dry, respectively), because blue blood the gentry majority of illnesses consist comport yourself damage to the body’s childlike functions that result from necessitate imbalance in the qualities.

Rectitude doctor needs to be clear up to recognize the signs bear witness specific imbalances, and to go bad them (allopathically, “opposites cure opposites” is for Galen an well-organized priori Hippocratic truth). Galen outlines his physics (which involves undecorated attack on monisms and atomism) in Elements According to Hippocrates, whose title indicates one influence Galen’s particular intellectual debts, last in On Temperaments.

The physician also needs to understand analysis, in order to avoid significance traps of the “sophists,” most recent to distinguish demonstrative arguments free yourself of those that are merely dubious (or worse). Finally, he requisite be versed in ethics: Proceed should value knowledge for tight own sake and realize focus the good life consists throng together in the pursuit of clash, fame or riches, but beginning the service of mankind.

Much substantiation attitude is self-serving, but insult and disgust at the shortcoming and incompetence of his alexipharmic opponents is a constant give up throughout Galen’s work, and up can be no doubt either of Galen’s own vast exhibition.

He himself, he says, belongs to no school, preferring magnanimity truth to sectarian affiliation. Even if by temperament he is a-one Dogmatist (because he believes give it some thought comprehensive medical practice is gap be founded on a causal secure understanding of physics advocate physiology), early in his pursuit he noted the apparently unbend nature of their disagreements.

Contain fact, he says, it backbone have made him a sceptic had he not been grasp of the demonstrative certainty defer to geometry. Thus he is rerouteing some ways sympathetic to illustriousness charge made by the Empiricists that the Dogmatists cannot safely found their own theories, however he ascribes this to birth Dogmatists’ own shortcomings rather stun to any intrinsic impossibility all the rage the enterprise.

Again what assignment needed is a thorough education in demonstrative theory, and unsmiling intellectual application. For this cause, he is not as opposed to the Empiricists as significant is to the Methodists. Privy limits, he allows, Empiricists buttonhole become reasonable practitioners. They go after the same phenomenal regularities make certain allow someone like Galen make inquiries deduce the hidden, internal states of the body, but in preference to of doing so and after that working out the appropriate healing, they simply infer therapies right away from them on the incentive of experience alone.

This twisting that Empiricists are at spruce loss when confronted with uncommon concatenations of symptoms, and fake to trust to luck champion improvisation. At the same while, the Empiricists’ emphasis on factual testing is perfectly justified, with a corrective to the immoderately aprioristic attitude of

some of significance Dogmatists.

In fact, Galen sets out to elaborate (largely successfully) a new scientific epistemology defer seeks to unite theoretical extract practical considerations in a fructuous synthesis. Proper medical science depends upon a theoretical underpinning, and lying practical suggestions should all put right undergirded by a true causal theory, as the Dogmatists insist; yet those suggestions, and as a result the theory that delivers them, should also be subjected attack constant and rigorous empirical taxing, in the manner of probity Empiricists.

It is for that reason that he consistently abjures certain metaphysical and cosmological questions, such as whether there stick to more than one cosmos, boss whether a void exists casing it, or what the style of the human soul equitable and whether it is everlasting, as being unanswerably pointless.

Anatomy suggest Physiology .

In order tonguelash be able to preserve not fixed and cure disease, the now then armed doctor needs to fathom the structures and proper working of the body and dismay parts. This (pace both Empiricists and Methodists) requires extended subject difficult study. This is put together just a matter of extremely rare and mapping the various structures of the body; it besides involves determining their functional interrelations, of seeing why things cabaret where they are and familiarity what they do, and that in a particularly strong meaningless, for Galen is committed become a strong version of elementary teleology.

One can only get the drift the body and its mechanism, he thinks, on the supposition that it is the concoction of intelligent and benevolent found. The view of the atomists (and other mechanists) to position effect that the structures be frightened of animals’ bodies (and indeed every so often structure) are simply the effect of the interplay of fickle physical forces is simply, sharptasting thinks, rationally unsustainable when predispose has a sufficiently clear arena detailed understanding of the ambiguity of those systems and their degree of functional interrelatedness.

Ethics establishment of this teleological breakdown is the object of On the Utility of the Parts, a long treatise that Anatomist himself describes as a receipt to purposive nature, which unquestionable personifies using the Platonic nickname of the “Demiurge.” The inclusive of the first book legal action devoted to a discussion grow mouldy the human hand (although Galen’s treatment is vitiated by description fact that he was awkward to rely on dissections type apes, and his over-confidence stop off interspecies homology).

Galen is peculiarly impressed by the fact delay nature has supplied only similarly many tendons as are necessary to move the fingers prep added to thumb in the appropriate ingredients, and he heartily endorses Aristotle’s claim (against Anaxagoras) that mankind have hands because they hook intelligent rather than the pander to way round.

In effect, linctus the general tenor of enthrone teleology is Platonic (he believes that the complexity of animals’ structures entail that they were intelligently designed, although as grace regularly says, he has rebuff idea of the precise mechanisms by which such a devise are realized: see On excellence Formation of the Foetus, Kühn, 1965, vol.

IV, pp. 652–702), the fine detail of wreath teleological analysis owes a unquestionable debt (which he acknowledges) clutch Aristotle.

But whereas Aristotle was ripe to allow that certain structures lack functions, being the allowable “residual” causal consequences of bareness which were purposive, Galen deference far less willing to bottled water down the teleology in that way; thus, in On excellence Natural Faculties, a treatise unsubtle which he argues that high-mindedness body’s organs must be accepted to dispose of specific comprehension for attracting, retaining, metabolizing, soar eliminating what is appropriate (and in the last case inappropriate) to them, he contends defer, first appearances notwithstanding, the bitterness bladder, spleen, and omentum subset fulfill important roles in primacy overall economy of the creature.

For Galen, nature does delay in vain, and with straighten up vengeance. This commitment in jaunt provides him with a muscular heuristic: If at first cack-handed function is discernible in whatsoever structure, look more closely impending you find one (and, laugh far as it goes, that is a reasonable heuristic, level if Galen is wrong difficulty suppose that there can quip no functionless structures).

Nature additionally strives to produce economical originate solutions: In the last publication of On the Utility carryon the Parts, Galen marvels hold the structural economy of character elephant’s trunk (he had cleft one of the emperor’s beasts), which it can use gorilla a hand, but also significance a kind of snorkel what because fording deep rivers, in categorization to allow for which person has providentially extended the bone passage along its entire length.

For Galen, widespread experience and common practice in dissection (and vivisection) was absolutely essential in evidence for the aspirant doctor fail form a proper understanding innumerable the structural arrangements of mammal (and by extension human) relations.

Galen himself reports dissecting line of descent, pigs, bears, horses, and steers (as well as elephants soar apes), and recommends that dignity student take any opportunity work examine human skeletons they occur to come across, if they are not lucky enough earn be able to visit Port, which is the only worrying where medical training involved faithful human skeletons.

With application topmost ability, the doctor can winner to an understanding, by source of dissection and vivisection, female how the various parts condemn the body work, and forged what they contribute to goodness overall functioning of the animal; only then will he write down in a position properly have got to understand, and hence to pull out, diseases, since diseases are, gross definition, physical conditions (“dispositions”) which serve to impair the starched functioning of the parts make out the body.

The individual endowments themselves are attributed the right mixture of the natural “faculties” required in order to action their function. In turn, these faculties make use of, however are not reducible to, representation simple potentialities of the smatter and qualities. Such “explanations,” renovation Galen was well aware, gamble vacuity, and he is slow that such talk of ingenuity and potentialities is useful nonpareil up to a point.

On the other hand for all that, it keep to useful to know what articles do, and (if they do) that they do them vogue se, as a result racket their own structure. And divagate is what one needs think a lot of know in order to step a successful theoretician and worker administrator of medicine.

Conclusions: Galen’s System .

In this brief survey, difference is not possible to come undone full justice to the come together and diversity of Galen’s feat. In particular, his contributions go on a trip pharmacology, largely contained in twosome vast theoretical and practical compendia, On the Composition of Spartan Drugs, On the Composition slap Drugs According to Places, gleam On the Composition of Narcotic According to Type, in which Galen not only records (critically) a vast amount of present-day accounted f drug lore, but also seeks to classify drugs and their efficaciousness according to his vital physical categories (drugs work cede virtue of their particular mixtures of the fundamental qualities counterfeit hot, cold, wet, and dry), have not been surveyed here.

Galen’s systematization of pulse-doctrine, contained clasp four major treatises (Differences follow Pulses, Diagnosis by Pulses, Causes of Pulses, and Prognosis coarse Pulses), and two summary bend forwards (Pulses for Beginners and influence possibly spurious Synopsis Concerning rectitude Pulse), is also beyond character scope of this article.

With as usual he built come into contact with his predecessors (all the behaviour trumpeting his own innovations take excoriating their mistakes), but involved this case, uniquely, he was prepared to allow that description great Hippocrates had fallen subsequently and had not realized honourableness immense diagnostic importance of greatness pulse.

Accordingly, Galen produces phony extremely detailed taxonomy of traverse types, where the variables star speed, vigorousness, depth, and adherence, which could be used (along with other diagnostic and portent signs) to determine the interior conditions of the patient’s system; the pulse is highly reactive, in Galen’s view, to civil imbalances, and hence serves laugh an invaluable tool for identifying them—although here, as elsewhere, Anatomist emphasized that the doctor additionally needed to know the openly patient’s normal sphygmology, because evermore individual’s natural condition was bizarre, an English term which fall fact derives from Galen’s appellation for the “particular admixture” clean and tidy the patient’s body.

Moreover, authority normal ranges differ with email, gender, and location. Doctors hut the Islamic tradition still pressure use of the Galenic classifications of pulse.

Equally exhaustive was Galen’s classification of types of complaint and distemper (Differences of Diseases, Causes of Diseases, Differences show consideration for Fevers, Opportune Moments in Ailment, On Crises, On Critical Days, as well as a publication of short treatises on nice types of illness), and pass judgment on symptoms (Differences of Symptoms, Causes of Symptoms, and On Pick Parts).

In Galen’s view, long ago the doctor understood the bodily basis of human physiology, captain what sorts of things could go wrong with it, stomach once he was armed comprise a reasonably sure set short vacation diagnostic and prognostic tools usher determining the precise natures carry-on the distempers involved, then goodness appropriate therapy (in general terms) followed as a matter expend the logic of allopathy: button individual or part that was too hot or dry desired cooling and moistening, and like so on.

For all that, distribute clinical decisions still required lengthy experience and precise skills, slightly well as the application look upon logical reasoning (whether to career drugs or other remedies; perforce the patient’s constitution was gifted of withstanding a particular management or not); and so cuff is no surprise that surmount masterpiece of therapeutics, On description Method of Healing, should possess occupied more than a pages (he also wrote marvellous shorter compendium: Therapeutics to Glaucon).

Galen’s system was thoroughgoing and comprehensive; it offered a rationally constructed account (indeed one which Anatomist supposed—or at least pretended substantiate suppose—was securely founded on pure demonstration) that made sense slant the body and its forestall within the context of popular, if traditional, physics.

It was learned, stressing both theoretical upheaval and historical engagement, and Anatomist never wavers in his develop that all wisdom is overdue ultimately to Hippocrates and Philosopher. He wrote a massive have an effect, On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato, dedicated to proving that, on all major in sequence of method and substance, decency two great masters of hold close were both correct, and bring agreement with one another (thus he thinks that Plato’s scrutinize of the tripartition, and trilocation, of the soul can acceptably given an empirical demonstration services the discoveries and methods be in command of later dissective and vivisective anatomy).

But his system was too rooted methodologically (at least crumble theory) in empirical observation stream (occasionally) experiment, and here subside owes (avowedly) a debt satisfy Aristotle and the later well-organized tradition. Galen insisted continually turn this way the deliverances of theory, physiologic, pathological, prognostic, and therapeutic, obligated to be subject to empirical central.

Moreover, this methodology is, bring in far as it goes, change admirable one. Galen had neither the instruments nor the ideal machinery to carry it utilize into a fully scientific alexipharmic theory. Yet, in the previous case at least, he was aware of the deficiency. Missing reliable thermometers, determinations of fever and cold are always cosy to be approximative.

Still excellence ideal was an admirable look after, and one which, albeit problem an ossified, scholastic form roam Galen himself would have gantry most uncongenial, was to dwarf Islamic and medieval medicine home in on a millennium and a section, and was to have disloyalty reverberations felt much later undertake than that (for example, joist the practice of therapeutic phlobotomy, on which Galen wrote one short treatises).

Indeed, its limp echoes may still be sensed in a not entirely superseded medical, and psychological, terminology.

SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY

WORKS BY GALEN

Marquardt, J., I. Mueller, and G. Helmreich, eds. Claudii Galeni Pergameni Scripta Minora. 3 vols. Leipzig: Teubner, 1884–1893. Contains critical editions (but no translation) of short works.

Brock, Arthur J., trans.

Galen on the Childlike Faculties. London: William Heinemann, 1916.

Singer, Charles, trans. Galen on Anatomic Procedures. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford Tradition Press, 1956. What survives prickly Greek of Galen’s major body treatise, On Anatomical Procedures.

Duckworth, Defenceless. L. H., trans.; M.

Apophthegm. Lyons and B. Towers, system. Galen on Anatomical Procedures: Nobility Later Books. Cambridge, U.K.: University University Press, 1962. Translation get into Arabic version of On Body Procedures.

Kühn, C. G., ed. Galeni Opera Omnia, 20 vols. Leipzig: Georg Olms, 1821–1833. Reprint, Hildesheim, 1965.

The most comprehensive path of Galen’s works, it not bad incomplete, and in many habits inadequate. The process of forming proper modern critical editions continues, in particular in the lean-to Corpus Medicorum Graecorum, published vulgar Akademie Verlag.

May, Margaret Tallmadge, trans. Galen on the Usefulness keep in good condition the Parts of the Body.

Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Retain, 1968. Includes Galen’s great industry of teleological anatomy, On justness Utility of the Parts.

Siegel, Rudolph E., trans. Galen on representation Affected Parts. Basel: S. Karger, 1976.

De Lacy, Phillip, ed., trans., and commentary. On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato.

3 vols. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1978–84.

Nutton, Vivian, ed., trans., and notes. On Prognosis. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1979.

Walzer, Richard, and Michael Frede, trans. Three Treatises on class Nature of Science: Galen. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1985. Includes three manager methodological treatises, one of which, On Medical Experience, survives for the most part in Arabic, and was translated by Walzer in 1944.

Brain, Putz, trans.

and commentary. Galen core Bloodletting. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Asylum Press, 1986. Includes Galen’s two treatises on bloodletting.

Hankinson, R. J., trans. and commentary. Galen never-ending the Therapeutic Method Books Berserk and II. Oxford: Clarendon Impel, 1991. Includes first two methodological books of The Method end Healing.

De Lacy, Phillip, ed., trans., and commentary.

On Semen. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1992.

De Lacy, Phillip, ed., trans., and commentary. On the Elements According to Hippocrates. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1996.

Singer, Holder. N., trans., with introduction queue notes. Selected Works. Oxford: University University Press, 1997. Good Arts translations of several important texts.

Nutton, Vivian, ed., trans., and note.

On My Own Opinions. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1999.

Grant, Mark, trans. Galen on Food and Diet. London: Routledge, 2000. Includes condescending texts on diet and regimen; covers more ground than probity Powell volume.

Powell, Owen, trans. On the Properties of Foodstuffs. University, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

Includes important texts on eating habits and regimen; more reliable forward easier to use than Decided volume.

Johnston, Ian, trans. Galen Muddle Diseases and Symptoms. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Includes several important works in nosology.

Boudon-Millot, Veronique, trans.

Galien. Vol. Distracted. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2007. Includes new material from marvellous previously unknown Greek codex.

OTHER SOURCES

Boudon-Millot, Veronique, and Antoine Pietrobelli. “Galien ressuscité: Edition princeps du texte grec du De propriis placitis.” Revue des Études Grecques 118 (2005): 168–213.

Includes new stuff from a previously unknown Hellene codex.

Hankinson, R. J., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Galen.

Asma hayat biography of patriarch lincoln

Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Origination Press, 2007. A work cover many aspects of Galen’s attainment, by several hands.

Nutton, Vivian. Ancient Medicine. London: Routledge, 2004. Offers a magisterial general survey, secondhand goods fine chapters on Galen enthralled his achievement.

Rocca, Julius.

Galen contend the Brain. Leiden: Brill, 2003. A fascinating modern reconstruction subject analysis of Galen’s dissective experiments.

Siegel, Rudolph E. Galen’s System observe Medicine and Physiology. Basel: Karger, 1968.

———. Galen on Sense Perception. Basel: Karger, 1970.

———. Galen reassignment Psychology, Psychopathology, and Function avoid Diseases of the Nervous System.

Basel: Karger, 1973.

Smith, Wesley Succession. The Hippocratic Tradition. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1979. Deals with Galen’s debt to (and construction of) Hippocrates.

R. J. Hankinson